of each small-sized particle as different NPs have a distinct chemical composition

and size-distribution profile (Chen et al. 2014).

In order to ensure reproducible synthesis of NP libraries, screening of NPs is

required in a systemic and parallel fashion since NPs normally comprise diverse

components and consist of a wide range of biophysical and chemical properties such

as drug pay load, surface targeting ligands, release kinetics, etc. Production of

uniform NPs is still quite an unrealized goal, even though multi-kilogram batches

of NPs suitable for clinical development and commercialization have been produced

through scale up of bulk techniques. Techniques such as microfluidics system and

PRINT have been employed which would help in streamline a controlled and high-

throughput investigation of kidney NP structure-activity relationships so as to

produce uniform NPs with precise control of size, shape, chemical composition,

drug loading and surface properties (Rolland et al. 2005; Xu et al. 2013; Kamaly

et al. 2016).

13.5

Current Research in the Development of Enzyme-Based

NPs for Treatment of Kidney Diseases

Although several therapies are available for the dissolution of kidney stones, due to

difference in the size, hardness, chemical composition and position of the stones,

none of them is effective in all cases. In spite of the tremendous development in

nanomedicines, till date no nanodrug has been created for treating nephrolithiasis or

kidney stones. Hence development of oxalate-degrading enzymes as nanomedicines

with prolonged circulation and reduced immunogenicity is of great importance for

the treatment of hyperoxaluria and therefore kidney stones (Fig. 13.3). In the past

few years, some research papers regarding the development of enzymatic nanodrugs

for treatment of nephrolithiasis have been published.

Table 13.1 (continued)

Type

Composition

Properties

References

Carbon-

based NPs

Polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbon

Targeted or non-targeted NPs,

mainly used in the form of

nanotubes, nanospheres, or

nanosheets for drug delivery as

well as diagnosis.

Both single- and multi-walled

carbon nanotubes induce

platelet aggregation and hence

display some degree of toxicity.

Need further chemical

modification to improve its

targeting abilities and solubility

in water and hence reduce

toxicity.

Lee et al.

(2015)

Kamaly

et al.

(2016)

13

Nanodrugs: A Futuristic Approach for Treating Nephrolithiasis

209